UNIT IV: RESEARCH REPORT WRITTING Types of report writing1.Research Report Writing. This is one of the most frequently used types of report writing students have toface. A research report should be a reflection of the report you have conducted. Its main requirement isclarity of language, and evidence of all the statements you make.2.Business Report Writing belongs to the types of report writing that business students have to deal with.Usually they are meant to be a kind of training before they start to work at some corporation and thenwriting such papers will be their daily duty.3.Science Report Writing belongs to academic types of report writing as well. This type of report writing isthe reflection of a certain empirical investigation you should conduct.i.Title of the report/ ResearchThe title refers to heading, label or tag. It describes what the study is all about and portrays a quick summary of the key ideas in a proposal or thesis, Kombo and Tromp (2006).For example. The factors contributing to Labour Mobility in the Banking Industry in Kenya indicates thatthe study is Labour mobility. It also indicates that the study will analyze the factors that contribute toLabour mobility. It is clear from the title that the respondents will be drawn from the Banking Industry inKenya.  It’s a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the variable.  Should be a reflection of the content of the document  Full explanatory when standard alone  Should not contain redundancy such as a study of…or investigation of….  Abbreviations should not appear in the title  Scientific names should be in italics.  Title should contain 12 to 15 wordsii.The name of the Author  The name should not bear any titles such as Dr., prof. Mr. or Mrs. E.g  Avoid the use of words like BY….FROM….  Preferred order of names start with first then middle followed by last name, for example JaneMuthoni Njeri  Avoid the use of initials for example P. M MutuaAffiliation should be well illustrated for example, Thesis/ research project submitted to the Department of Business studies in partial fulfillment for the degree of Business Administration of Technical University of Mombasa. The video player is currently playing an ad. You can skip the ad in 5 sec with a mouse or keyboard Month and year of publication of the report should follow at the bottom of caption example May 2014.B Declaration Should include both the candidates and the supervisor’s declaration and dully signed.ExampleThis proposal/ thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University.………………….. ………………….Signature DateThis proposal/ thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a University …………………..………………….Signature Date NOTE: Paginate using roman numbers start with the declaration pageC. DedicationThe author may wish to dedicate the research work or report to people he/she holds dear for example to parent’s,wife and children.D. AbstractIt is a summary of the research or report.It contains brief statement of the problem, objectives of the study, target population, sampling technique andsample size, instruments, data collection, data processing and analysis, key findings and major recommendation.It should not exceed 1000 words.E.Table of contentThis lists all the sections contained in the research or reports showing the page where they are located KIM(2009).It should be in title case and single spaced.The chapters should be caps and bold.The subheadings should follow each chapter title and should be in title case.Subheading of rows should be- chapters and pages indicated once at the top of each column.Example CHAPTER 1 PAGE1.1 Introduction…………………………………..11.2 Statement of the problem……………………..2ReferenceAppendices-includes instruments (questionnaire), budget, work planF.List of TablesAll the tables used to present data in the research report showing the page on which they are located. The tablenumber and the title must be exactly as they appear in the text.G.List of FiguresPresents the entire figures used in the research report showing the page on which they are located. The figurenumber and the title should be exactly as they appear in the text.H.Acronyms and AbbreviationAn abbreviation is a short of a word and is used when the word is used repeatedly in a research report. Itexplains what the words stand for in full. For example. WHO stands for World Health Organization.I.Definition of terms- define terms in the text that are not common.CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION1.1 Background of the studyThe sections seek to establish the significance or importance of the problem area in general terms globally,regionally and nationally. (KIM, 2009).Background of the study refers to the setting or the position of the study. It is a brief overview of the problem theresearch aspires to tackle. (Kombo and Tromp, 2006).  Back ground should show understanding or genesis of the problem  Talk about global perspective followed by local scenario.  Talk about the target group in the study  Should be 4 to 6 pages. 1.2 Statement of the problemAccording to Kombo and Tromp( 2004), research problem refers to an issue or concern that puzzles theresearcher.  Must indicate exactly what the problem is  Indicate why and how it is a problem.  Also give information to support by use of statistical evidence.  Show connectivity with background  Length is maximum of 1 pageMugenda and Mugenda,(1999). Lists the following as the characteristics of a good problem statement.  is written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s interest is captured  the specific problem identified in the problem statement is objectively researchable  the scope of the specific research problem is indicated  the importance of the study in adding new knowledge is stated clearly  the problem statement must give the purpose of the research1.3 Objectives of the studyObjectives are intentions or purposes stated in specific measureable terms. They provide opportunities for evaluating the results. It is a specific statement relating to the defined aim of the study, Kombo and Tromp(2004).The main objective of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered, Kothari(2004).Example The main objective is to find out factors contributing to Labour Mobility in the Banking Industry inKenya. • General objective should be in line with the title. • Specific objective must be in line with the variables the candidate hypothesizes to influence the phenomenon being investigated. • Should be related to general objective. • Should not be questions in the questionnaire.1.4 Research questionsThese are the questions the researcher would like to be answered by the study. They are more specific than theobjectives and could be stated as hypothesis.( KIM, 2009). According to Kombo and Tromp (2004), researchquestions are issues that the researcher seeks to answer and are related to the research objectives. They guide theresearch process by addressing the variables. • Should be in line with the specific objectives and equal in number. • Have to be numbers (1, 2, 3……) and should be in question form.1.5 Significance of the study/ justificationThis is the importance of the study. The argument for the worth of the study is raised to the people (KIM, 2009).The significance of the study shows who will benefit from the study findings and how.1.6 Scope of the studyThe researcher states the coverage of the individual study. These includes the problem area, the geographicalregion covered in the study, the time span, and the extent of the depth of the inquiry indicated by the by theresearch method adopted.1.6 LimitationsAccording to Kombo and Tromp (2004), this section indicates the challenges anticipated or faced by theresearcher. These include time and financial limitations that influenced the scope of the study, data inaccessibility,and unanticipated occurrences. The researcher must however state how the challenges were overcome or how theywill be overcome. • Not a must in proposal • Has to be there in final thesis/project report CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Introduction It should includeIts introduction of your literature based on the title 2.2 Conceptual Framework A conceptual framework many be considered to be a design that identifies each of the series of logical steps or variables and interactions which, bridge the gap from the beginning to the end of the research process, Kothari,(2003). Training of employeesCompensaton of employees Performance appraisalprocess Employees’ involvemen Communicaton AffectIIndependent variable Dependent variableFigure 2.1 Conceptual Framework • Review the empirical and theoretical literature relevant to the problem being investigated • Indicate what has been done by other researcher including the methodologies used and identify gaps. • The hypothesized variable should be subheadings of the literature review to form a framework that wouldhelp in analysis. • Conceptual framework should demonstrate an understanding of what variable influence what. Example of conceptual framework is below. • Cite 3-5 reference per key section in the text. • Each key variable should be 2-3 pages long2.3 Critique of the existing literature relevant to the studyCritique literature written by scholars in your particular field of studies. One can also critique the style of writing,methodology used, data collection process data analysis procedure used.2.4 SummaryBrief illustration of summary of the literature review.2.5 Research gaps It's missing element in the existing research literatureIt's the gap that you fill with your research approachIt’s what makes your manuscript publishable CHAPTER 3METHODOLOGY3.1 Research Design A research design is a plan outlining how information was gathered for an assessment or evaluation that includesidentifying the data gathering method(s), the instruments that was used, how the instruments was be administered,and how the information should be organized and analyzed, Kothari (2003).  Research design- indicates types of research, justify the choice of type of research by citing authority. 3.2 Population  Clearly identify the population and the target population.  Justify the target populationAccording to Hussey & Hussey, (1998) when the population size is too small, then even if everything else has been carried out perfectly, the inferences drawn will not be valid or perfect and on the other hand, if the population sizes are too large the results can also provide a false statistical inference 3.3 Sampling frame  Justify the choice 3.4 Sample and Sampling technique  Illustrate understanding of the technique.Sample size represents the number of respondents from the population that participated in the study, Krejcie andMorgan, (1970). Each individual is chosen randomly such that each individual had the same probability of beingchosen at any stage during the sampling process. This method also gave each member of the population an equalchance of being chosen and included in the sample Hussey & Hussey (1998). 3.5 Instruments- Questionnaire is mainly use as research instrument. Other include interviews, focus groupand observation.3.6 Data collection Procedure3.7 Pilot test-it depends on the instrument being used. This aimed at checking the validity and reliability of the data by pre-testing the data collection instrument.According to (Polit and Hungler, 1997), a pre- test is a trial run to determine whether the instrument is clearlyworded and free from major biases and whether it solicits the type of information envisioned. 3.8 Data processing and analysis According to Kothari, (2003) data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling datawith the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making.CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION  It entails style of presentation. In this section raw data are presented followed by discussions. Example istable below Table 4.2 Length of Service Length of servicePercentage (%)less than 5 years 2.4 6 – 10 years38.3 11 – 15 years24.8 16 – 20 years19 21 - 25 years12.5 26 years aboveTotal3100This question investigate length of service for the respondent, Majority (38.3%) of respondents had over 5 years of experience while 24.8% had an experience between 11 - 15 years and a paltry (2.4%) had experience of less than 5years. This means that majority of respondents have worked in the organization for longer time and therefore haveenough knowledge about the organization which makes them to best placed to give accurate information for thisstudy.  Should be guided by methodology. Unit of analysis should be based on the research questions or objectivesand should capture the independent variable.  Table should have no vertical line (use simple formatting) example is table 4.3 belowTable 4.3: Table: Performance Appraisal and Better Compensation.ResponseFrequencyPercentageYes1530% NoTotal355070%100%  Table titles should be at the top of the tables  Table copied from elsewhere should have source below them.  Any table generated by research should not have the source quote.  Figure title should be at the bottom of figures.  Discussion should follow the resultsCHAPTER 5SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS5.1 INTRODUCTION.A brief introduction of the chapter.This is perhaps the most crucial because it presents your contribution to the research literature and because somecursory readers will attend to this chapter only. Therefore, it is typical to summarize briefly essential points madein chapters 1 and 3: why is this topic important and how was this study designed to contribute to our understanding of the topic? The remainder of the chapter teases out the implications of the study's findings.These implications can be grouped into those related to theory or generalization, those related to practice, andthose related to future research, and separate sections with corresponding headings are good organizers. As with most other chapters, a brief statement introduces Chapter 5 prior to the first section heading of thechapter. This introduction generally articulates the contents of Chapter 5 and may depict the specific headings intowhich the chapter is divided (Simon ,2006).5.2 SUMMARY  Extension of abstractThe Summary section of Chapter 5 provides a brief recap of the entire study. Generally, this section summarizesthe introduction, problem statement and hypotheses/research questions, literature review, methodology, andfindings. Someone reading this section would have a good overview of why the study was done, the specific purpose of the study and hypotheses/research questions, what the literature relates about the problem under investigation (very briefly), the methods used to gather data for the study, and findings emerging from analysis of the data (Sproull,1995). Note that the findings are part of the Summary and are not included in a separate section.(When considering submitting research findings for publication, the Summary section of Chapter 5 should serveas an abbreviated format for the manuscript to be submitted.While not mandatory, this section is generally subdivided into subsections (with corresponding subheads) relatedto purpose, literature review, methodology (procedures), and findings. Although there is no "best" length for thissection, usually three to six pages provides an adequate overview of the study. If the section gets much longer thanthis, it fails to remain a "summary." Be aware that too long a summary of the literature review is the most frequentcontributor to the summary running longer than needed.5.3 CONCLUSIONS  Must derive from summary.This section presents conclusions drawn from the findings and results of the data analysis. Findings from the present study should provide the primary information for drawing conclusions. Frequently, conclusions provideanswers to hypotheses or research questions posed in Chapter 1. While conclusions may be written in narrativeform or listed one at a time, listing them one at a time is generally easier for readers to follow and helps maintainclarity of focus for each conclusion. An important observation regarding conclusions is in order:Conclusions are not the same as findings and should not simply be restatements of findings from Chapter 4. Aconclusion should be broader and more encompassing than a specific finding, and several findings may beincorporated into one conclusion (Simon, 2006). While several findings may be used to support one conclusion, itis also possible that one finding might give rise to several conclusions (although this is somewhat less common).Generally, while specific findings are stated in the past tense (e.g., students expressed greatest satisfaction withuniversity instructors), conclusions are stated in the present tense (e.g., students are most satisfied with universityinstructors). The following illustrates the relationship between findings and conclusions.A study of public school superintendents across the United States in 1991 yielded the following findings: 1. Only 5% were non-White2. Only 8% were femaleFrom these findings the following conclusion was drawn: Women and minorities continue to remainunderrepresented in the ranks of public school superintendents. (Note: This conclusion combined both findingsinto a single broad statement that appears well supported by the study findings.5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS  Should come from conclusionThe final section of Chapter 5 contains recommendations that emerge from the study. Generally,recommendations are of two distinct types; recommendations for action or practice (based on the study's findingsand conclusions, and sometimes headed Recommendations from the Study or Recommendations for Practice), andRecommendations for Further Study. Frequently a separate section is included for each set of recommendations – each with an appropriate section heading. Recommendations for Practice are generally prescriptive in nature andaddress what could or should be done by practitioners or members of the intended audience in terms of professional practice and policy. These recommendations are based upon results of the study. For example,1. Since male and female teachers rated elements of the professional development program much differently, theadministration should provide gender-appropriate training to the teachers that highlights gender differences.Recommendations for further study contain suggestions regarding follow-up studies or replication studies. Theserecommendations usually acknowledge limitations or delimitations that the study included and which further studies could help explain or clarify. These might include different methodologies, expanded populations or samples, or changes in the instrument itself. For example,1. Since the current study was completed using a cross-sectional survey design, a similar study should be plannedwithin the same school that uses a longitudinal design to determine if changes over time become perceptible.The final section of Chapter 5 contains recommendations that emerge from the study. Generally,recommendations are of two distinct types; recommendations for action or practice (based on the study's findingsand conclusions, and sometimes headed Recommendations from the Study or Recommendations for Practice), andRecommendations for Further Study. Frequently a separate section is included for each set of recommendations – each with an appropriate section heading. Recommendations for Practice are generally prescriptive in nature andaddress what could or should be done by practitioners or members of the intended audience in terms of professional practice and policy. These recommendations are based upon results of the study. For example,1. Since male and female teachers rated elements of the professional development program much differently, theadministration should provide gender-appropriate training to the teachers that highlights gender differences. Recommendations for further study contain suggestions regarding follow-up studies or replication studies. Theserecommendations usually acknowledge limitations or delimitations that the study included and which further studies could help explain or clarify. These might include different methodologies, expanded populations or samples, or changes in the instrument itself. For example,1.Since the current study was completed using a cross-sectional survey design, a similar study should be planned within the same school that uses a longitudinal design to determine if changes over time become perceptible. DEFINITION OF LITERATURE REVIEW •A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars andresearchers (Hart, 2000). It is a critical look at existing research that is significant to the work that theresearcher will be carrying out. It involves examining documents such as books, magazines, journals anddissertations that have bearing on the study being conducted (Tromp & Kombo, 2006).Attributes of Literature Review•Definition and delimitation of the topic or problem under enquiry. Literature review includes carefuldefinition of the topic and careful description of what the topic will not include. For example, one canstate that his/her topic includes attribution restraining, but not locus of control research and state thereason for this. (Machi, 2009)•Review of previous reviews to establish their conclusions and how the researcher’s literature reviewdiffer. This attribute involves division of works under review into categories such as those in support of a particular position and those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely. It also involvesexplanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others (Allen, 1996).•Stating procedures for obtaining relevant literature. Unbiased review should contain systematic procedures for obtaining relevant literature, procedures that could be replicated by someone else whowould then obtain same literature.•Description of common independent and dependent variables. This shows how different studies areinterrelated (Hart, 2001). .•Stating criteria for evaluating outcomes for example in intervention research. If you say a particular treatment was “effective”, you should state what criteria applied for stating so.During these early times,inquiry was closely related to the concept of measurement, especially in learning.• Support of conclusions of the review with data presented in the review. When specific conclusions aremade at the end of a review, it should be clearly stated how and from what data sources they are based, pieces of literature that were considered and found to be most convincing in support of conclusions and which pieces of literature made the greatest contribution to understanding and developing the area of research. purpose of literature review•According to Hart (1998) they are;• To define and limit the problem of the research study.•To place one’s research study in a historical perspective.•To avoid unnecessary duplication.•To evaluate promising research methods.•To relate your findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research.•Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done.•Discovering important variables relevant to the topic.•Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective.•Identifying relationships between ideas and practices.•Establishing the context of the topic or problem.•Rationalizing the significance of the problem•Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary.•Understanding the structure of the subject.•Relating ideas and theory to applications.•Identifying methodologies and techniques that have been used.•Resolve conflict amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.•Place one’s original work (in the case of thesis or dissertations in the context of existing literature)•Identify new ways to interpret and shed light on any gaps in previous research.•Point the way forward for further research.Elements of Literature Review•According to Caulley (1992) of La Trobe University, the literature review should:- •Compare and contrast different authors’ views on an issue.•Group authors who draws similar conclusions.•Criticize aspects of methodology.•Note areas in which authors are in disagreement.•Highlight exemplary studies.•Highlight gaps in research•Show how your study relates to previous studies.•Show how your study relates to the literature in general.•Conclude by summarizing what the literature says.CONCEPTUAL MODELS•The models in research form a simplified structure which is meant to help gain insight into a phenomenonthat one needs to explain. It provides a way of relating factors that tend to influence a particular outline ina more pictorial or diagrammatic way.•The conceptual models are divided into two namely Conceptual and Theoretical frameworks.CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK•A conceptual framework is a schematic presentation of the relationship between the variables/concepts inthe study that brings about cause-effect in a research-study. It is usually made in terms of co-variations,operations and pointer reading. The essential element of causation is that “A” produces “B” or A “Forces”B to occur.•It also refers to when a researcher conceptualizes the relationship between variables in the study and showthe relationship graphically and diagrammatically. It is a hypothesized model identifying the conceptsunder study and their relationship and helps the reader to quickly see the proposed relationship betweenvariables. A researcher may, after the study, give another reduced model excluding the variables and therelationship which were not supported by the results (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).Elements of Conceptual Framework •It explains the main dimensions of the study which are Key factors, variables.•It described the presumed relationship between factors and variables. •It specifies who and what is to be studied as well as events, settings, processes, theoretical constructs(original rules)•It specifies outcomes of the study.•It guides the researcher through the research process at the same time being receptive of change, byfocusing and refocusing data collection and analysis (Sarantakos, 1997).THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK•A theory is a set of systematically tested and logically interrelated propositions that have been developedthrough research and that explain social phenomena (Sarantakos, 1997).•In many fields, theories and propositions about concepts and relationships have been formulated(Mugenda et. al, 2003). In such fields, a researcher may be interested in ascertaining or testing a particular theory or framework. A theoretical framework should be clearly explained in a proposal. A researcher must then show how the study in question is related to the theoretical background. Theoretical framework is the basis on which the entire research rests. It is the foundation or base of the research project. It isdescribed as;•A network of associations amongst and between variables. These associations of variables are identifiedduring literature review and provide a solid foundation for explaining relationships between and withinvariables.•An identification of variables of the problem. Researchers then guess and test the relationships of therelationships•An identification of the interrelationships of the variables and ones logical beliefs about the problem•An explanation of the interconnections of the factors of the problem•A survey of ideas and variables relevant to the problem situation•A process of identification of the problem and its variables•An elaboration of the network of associations among variables. These are variable relationships•Provides a logical base for development of relevant hypotheses, which can be tested•Explains the theory underlying these relationships•The nature and direction of the relationshipsComponents of a theoretical framework•Names of identified variables •A definition of each variables of the problem•Descriptions of interconnections, relationships and associations between variables. These variablesexplain why relationships exist, how relationships exist, the nature and direction of the relationships. In atheoretical framework, researchers are free to explain the nature and direction of relationships andvariables and the diagram of the conceptual model i.e. connection of concepts•Theory of relationships. Are they positive or negative?•Explain origin of relationships of variables using literature findings•A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework. This diagram indicates and clarifies relevant andimportant relationships.SOURCES/ TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW•Primary Sources/Types•This is a direct description of any occurrence by an individual who actually observed or witnessed theoccurrence.. Primary literature may be referred to or cited at a later date by researchers working in asimilar field.•These primary types/sources of Literature Review include:•Scholarly Journals•Periodicals•Theses and Dissertations•Conference or Research Papers•Reports•Patents•Government documents•Secondary Sources/Types•Any publication written by an author who was not a direct observer or participant in the event described.Secondary literature repackages, analyses, evaluates or reorganizes the new information reported byresearchers in the primary literature.•Review Articles•Various collected works •International Indices•Books•References quoted in books may reveal more relevant sources such as books and journals.•Microfilms: This is where information, especially old information, is stored on microfilm and retrievedonly when needed•Internet:•Tertiary Sources/Types•Most of these publications are called indexes and abstracts. These are broadly scoped material puttogether usually from secondary sources to provide an overview.•Examples include Catalogues, Encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, citations and text books.:Appropriate Literature Review Source Material•In general, the literature review source material is appropriate if it has:•Relevance: Does the source contribute to the development of your topic? Does it clarify your position?•Authority: Is it published in a reputable journal? Has the source been critically evaluated and peer reviewed•Currency: How recent or influential is the research?•Provenance – what are the authors’ credentials?•Objectivity – is the authors’ perspective even – handed or prejudicial?•Persuasive – which of the authors’ thesis are most/least convincing?•Value – are the authors’ arguments and conclusion coming? Does the work ultimately contribute in anysignificant way to understanding of the subject?THE SCOPE OF LITERATURE REVIEW•How wide or narrow should the literature review be? And how does one determine relevant literature?,here are a few general guidelines:•If the area of study has been studied for long and there is a huge body of literature one can choose to readthe studies which are close to one’s research topic. •In a new or little researched area where little depth is available, a researcher would require reviewing anyrelevant material in order to develop a logical framework for the study and appropriate hypothesis for thestudy.•The researcher should avoid the temptation to include all available material a small well organized reviewis preferable to a review containing many studies that are remotely related to the problem.•When you encounter material already reviewed then that is an indicator to abandon literature review.•Read all those studies that are closely related to the area of study. STEPS IN CARRYING OUT LITERATURE REVIEW – Be very familiar with the library before beginning the literature review. –Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search. –With key words, one should be able to go to the source of literature . – Reading and noting selected references . Summarize the references on cards for easyorganization of the literature. –Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderlymanner ..•Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation. Decide on headlines andsubheadings required depending on how detailed the review is.• Critical Review •An analysis of the information must be done to reveal the gaps that need attention and also show how theexisting literature ties with the objectives of the proposed study. • 8.0 Summary •It is advisable to have a summary of the literature review towards the end of the section. This helps tohighlight main ideas and issues. • 9.0 Conclusion •Good literature reviews are those that rely upon original, primary sources of research studies rather thansecondary sources or interpretations of original research. Good reviews are those that go beyond simplysummarizing previous research